| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language, Power and Pedagogy Jim Cummins, 2000-09-22 Population mobility is at an all-time high in human history. One result of this unprecedented movement of peoples around the world is that in many school systems monolingual and monocultural students are the exception rather than the rule, particularly in urban areas. This shift in demographic realities entails enormous challenges for educators and policy-makers. What do teachers need to know in order to teach effectively in linguistically and culturally diverse contexts? How long does it take second language learners to acquire proficiency in the language of school instruction? What are the differences between attaining conversational fluency in everyday contexts and developing proficiency in the language registers required for academic success? What adjustments do we need to make in curriculum, instruction and assessment to ensure that second-language learners understand what is being taught and are assessed in a fair and equitable manner? How long do we need to wait before including second-language learners in high-stakes national examinations and assessments? What role (if any) should be accorded students’ first language in the curriculum? Do bilingual education programs work well for poor children from minority-language backgrounds or should they be reserved only for middle-class children from the majority or dominant group? In addressing these issues, this volume focuses not only on issues of language learning and teaching but also highlights the ways in which power relations in the wider society affect patterns of teacher–student interaction in the classroom. Effective instruction will inevitably challenge patterns of coercive power relations in both school and society. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The CALLA Handbook Anna Uhl Chamot, 2009 The second edition of The CALLA Handbook is a practical and research based methodology book for all teachers of students learning English as a new language. Each chapter has been updated to reflect new research, content-subject national standards, and adaptations of the CALLA model. Features of the second edition An updated theoretical framework of CALLA, based on current second-language acquisition and learning theory research In-depth descriptions and examples for each component of the CALLA model: using content areas standards, developing academic language, and teaching learning strategies. A comprehensive analysis of the CALLA instructional sequence to help teachers plan and differentiate instruction Standardized test preparation and authentic, performance-based assessments Reproducible lesson plans and activities for using the CALLA model to enhance academic growth in English language arts, mathematics, science, and history/social studies |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language Awareness in Teaching Timothy Chadwick, 2012-04-05 A collaborative series with the University of Cambridge Faculty of Education highlighting leading-edge research across Teacher Education, International Education Reform and Language Education. Produced with University of Cambridge International Examinations, the Toolkit helps teachers to develop language awareness to support their students with the academic language they need to be successful in subjects taught through English. With reflective questions and activities, it can be used either for self-study or in training modules. Useful for both content and English language teachers, it is aimed primarily at those who teach students for whom English is not their first language - for example as part of a bilingual or CLIL programme or in an international English-medium school. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Book Fiesta! Pat Mora, 2016-03-29 This Pura Belpré Award–winning picture book is a bilingual ride through the joyous history of Children’s Day/El día de los niños. Children’s Day/Book Day; El día de los niños/El día de los libros has been observed on April 30th for over twelve years. Founder Pat Mora’s jubilant celebration of this day features imaginative text and lively illustrations by award-winning illustrator Rafael López that will turn this bilingual fiesta into a hit for story time! Toon! Toon! The book includes a letter from the author and suggestions for celebrating Children’s Day /El día de los niños. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Adding English Elizabeth Coelho, 2004 A comprehensive source of ideas and advice for enhancing the learning of all students in all subject areas and at all grade levels. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Rethinking the Education of Multilingual Learners Jim Cummins, 2021-09-06 Over the past 40 years, Jim Cummins has proposed a number of highly influential theoretical concepts, including the threshold and interdependence hypotheses and the distinction between conversational fluency and academic language proficiency. In this book, he provides a personal account of how these ideas developed and he examines the credibility of critiques they have generated, using the criteria of empirical adequacy, logical coherence, and consequential validity. These criteria of theoretical legitimacy are also applied to the evaluation of two different versions of translanguaging theory – Unitary Translanguaging Theory and Crosslinguistic Translanguaging Theory – in a way that significantly clarifies this controversial concept. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language Processing in Bilingual Children Ellen Bialystok, 1991-05-09 A collection of papers that explore bilingual children coping with two language systems. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Testing Academic Language Proficiency Marco Mezzadri, 2017 This book focuses on the development of the process of teaching and assessing foreign language competence for study purposes in a pluricultural and plurilingual context. It addresses not only the individual who is learning the language for academic purposes (LAP), but also other stakeholders, like teachers, schools and universities, and external boards, such as examination boards for language testing. The book highlights an ongoing research project at the University of Parma, Italy, aimed at developing teaching programs and evaluative tools for language for academic purposes. Starting from a reflection upon the nature of language for study purposes stemming from the tradition of English for Academic Purposes, it describes the model of an LAP test implemented in Italian secondary schools and universities, and shows the findings concerning the performance in the test of both students whose mother tongue is Indo-European and those who speak non-Indo-European languages. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Pedagogical and Technological Innovations in (and through) Content and Language Integrated Learning Alba Graziano, Barbara Turchetta, Fausto Benedetti, Letizia Cinganotto, 2021-05-14 Widely spread all over Europe and the world, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is the subject of great, interest as the ultimate frontier of linguistic and pedagogical research. It impinges on the general cognitive processes involved in learning, on language acquisition and on the development of digital competencies. This volume attests to the spreading of the new “CLIL literacy” in the frame of pluriliteracies, and derives theoretical reflections from case studies and experiential reports, thus addressing both academic and school instructors. It combines research from international CLIL experts with the critical perspectives of academics not directly involved in its instruction. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Keys to Educational Psychology Liesel Ebersöhn, Irma Eloff, 2004-06 If you are curious about Educational Psychology, this book is for you. You can read the chapters in any sequence, or you can start at the beginning, because this book provides myriad keys to the wonderful variety of themes in Educational Psychology today. Written by leading psychologists, researchers and practitioners, this book focuses on all the positive constructs in Educational Psychology and reflects on the wide range of strengths, assets and resources available to the educational psychologist. Each chapter presents an integrated overview, cutting-edge definitions of key concepts, quotations from professionals and students, and reflective questions to guide your practice. Written primarily by South Africans, this book is particularly relevant to the local environment and presents practical application strategies. Indigenous knowledge is infused with international perspectives, and equal emphasis is placed on the learner and on the social context, on assessment and intervention, and on theory and practice. The book is extremely accessible to students, but will also be invaluable for teachers, psychologists, researchers and health professionals. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Colin Baker, Sylvia Prys Jones, 1998 This encyclopedia is divided into three sections: individual bilingualism; bilingualism in society and bilingual education. It includes many pictures, graphs, maps and diagrams. The book concludes with a comprehensive bibliography on bilingualism. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: WJ IV Clinical Use and Interpretation Dawn P Flanagan, Vincent C Alfonso, 2016-01-28 WJ IV Clinical Use and Interpretation: Scientist-Practitioner Perspectives provides clinical use and interpretive information for clinical practitioners using the Woodcock-Johnson, Fourth Edition (WJ IV). The book discusses how the cognitive, achievement, and oral language batteries are organized, a description of their specific content, a brief review of their psychometric properties, and best practices in interpreting scores on the WJ IV. Coverage includes the predictive validity of its lower order factors and the clinical information that can be derived from its 60 individual subtests. Part II of this book describes the clinical and diagnostic utility of the WJ IV with young children for diagnosing learning disabilities in both school age and adult populations, and for identifying gifted and talented individuals. Additionally, the book discusses the use of the WJ IV with individuals whose culture and language backgrounds differ from those who are native English speakers and who were born and raised in mainstream US culture. - Discusses the organization and content of all three batteries in the WJ-IV - Reviews best practices for score interpretation - Covers psychometric properties and predictive validity - Explores clinical information that can be extracted from 60 individual subtests - Includes diagnostic utility for learning disabilities, giftedness, and non-English speaking populations |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Vocabulary Instruction Edward J. Kame'enui, James F. Baumann, 2012-05-10 This highly regarded work brings together prominent authorities on vocabulary teaching and learning to provide a comprehensive yet concise guide to effective instruction. The book showcases practical ways to teach specific vocabulary words and word-learning strategies and create engaging, word-rich classrooms. Instructional activities and games for diverse learners are brought to life with detailed examples. Drawing on the most rigorous research available, the editors and contributors distill what PreK-8 teachers need to know and do to support all students' ongoing vocabulary growth and enjoyment of reading. New to This Edition*Reflects the latest research and instructional practices.*New section (five chapters) on pressing current issues in the field: assessment, authentic reading experiences, English language learners, uses of multimedia tools, and the vocabularies of narrative and informational texts.*Contributor panel expanded with additional leading researchers. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins Jim Cummins, Colin Baker, Nancy H. Hornberger, 2001 The contribution of Jim Cummins to bilingualism and bilingual education has been substantial and profound. This reader provides a comprehensive compilation of his most important and influential texts. The book also provides a detailed biographical introduction and a commentary on the growth of ideas over three decades. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Learning About Learning Disabilities Po-Zen Wong, Bernice Wong, 2014-05-19 This is the first textbook to give equal attention to the intellectual, conceptual, and practical aspects of learning disabilities. Topical coverage is both comprehensive and thorough, and the information presented is up-to-date.Provides a balanced focus on both the conceptual and practical aspects of learning disabilities (LD)**The research covered is far more comprehensive and of greater depth than any other LD textbook**The work is distinctive in its treatment of such important areas as consultation skills and service delivery |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: International Handbook of English Language Teaching Jim Cummins, Chris Davison, 2007-12-31 This two volume handbook provides a comprehensive examination of policy, practice, research and theory related to English Language Teaching in international contexts. More than 70 chapters highlight the research foundation for best practices, frameworks for policy decisions, and areas of consensus and controversy in second language acquisition and pedagogy. The Handbook provides a unique resource for policy makers, educational administrators, and researchers concerned with meeting the increasing demand for effective English language teaching. It offers a strongly socio-cultural view of language learning and teaching. It is comprehensive and global in perspective with a range of fresh new voices in English language teaching research. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language and Learning in Multilingual Classrooms Elizabeth Coelho, 2012-06-25 This book offers practical research-based advice for teachers and other educators on how to adapt school and classroom procedures, curriculum content, and instructional strategies in order to provide a supportive learning environment for students of minority language backgrounds who are learning the language of instruction at the same time as they are learning the curriculum. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Building Academic Language Jeff Zwiers, 2014-04-07 “Of the over one hundred new publications on the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), this one truly stands out! In the second edition of Building Academic Language, Jeff Zwiers presents a much-needed, comprehensive roadmap to cultivating academic language development across all disciplines, this time placing the rigor and challenges of the CCSS front and center. A must-have resource!” —Andrea Honigsfeld, EdD, Molloy College “Language is critical to the development of content learning as students delve more deeply into specific disciplines. When students possess strong academic language, they are better able to critically analyze and synthesize complex ideas and abstract concepts. In this second edition of Building Academic Language, Jeff Zwiers successfully builds the connections between the Common Core State Standards and academic language. This is the ‘go to’ resource for content teachers as they transition to the expectations for college and career readiness.” —Katherine S. McKnight, PhD, National Louis University With the adoption of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) by most of the United States, students need help developing their understanding and use of language within the academic context. This is crucially important throughout middle school and high school, as the subjects discussed and concepts taught require a firm grasp of language in order to understand the greater complexity of the subject matter. Building Academic Language shows teachers what they can do to help their students grasp language principles and develop the language skills they’ll need to reach their highest levels of academic achievement. The Second Edition of Building Academic Language includes new strategies for addressing specific Common Core standards and also provides answers to the most important questions across various content areas, including: What is academic language and how does it differ by content area? How can language-building activities support content understanding for students? How can teachers assist students in using language more effectively, especially in the academic context? How can academic language usage be modeled routinely in the classroom? How can lesson planning and assessment support academic language development? An essential resource for teaching all students, this book explains what every teacher needs to know about language for supporting reading, writing, and academic learning. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The Roles of Language in CLIL Ana Llinares, Tom Morton, Rachel Whittaker, 2012-03-15 This book provides a theoretically based approach to the integration of language and content in primary and secondary contexts. Drawing on their wide experience as CLIL educators and researchers, the authors explore data collected in real CLIL classrooms from two interrelated perspectives: the CLIL classroom as an interactional context for developing language and content, and the genres and registers through which the meanings of the different academic subjects are enacted. From the analysis of this corpus of data, the authors provide a rich description of how CLIL students' language works and may be expected to develop. Also available separately as a hardback. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The Acquisition of Dutch Steven Gillis, Annick De Houwer, 1998-05-15 In the present-day context of cross-linguistic perspectives on language acquisition, The Acquisition of Dutch offers a much needed overview of the wealth of Dutch child language research that was hitherto lacking. Its comprehensive coverage in terms of topics, its many new theoretical contributions and its focus on providing a solid basis for cross-linguistic comparisons will be of interest to linguists and psycholinguists studying child language everywhere.The volume consists of four thematic chapters preceded by an introductory overview. The thematic chapters cover early speech development in the first year of life, the acquisition of phonology, the lexicon and syntax. The consolidated list of references cover most of the work on Dutch child language in the last few decades. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Interpersonal Interactions and Language Learning Shin Yi Chew, Lee Luan Ng, 2021-04-13 This book takes as its starting point the assumption that interpersonal communication is a crucial aspect of successful language learning. Following an examination of different communicative models, the authors focus on traditional face-to-face (F2F) interactions, before going on to compare these with the forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC) enabled by recent developments in educational technology. They also address the question of individual differences, particularly learners' preferred participation styles, and explore how F2F and CMC formats might impact learners differently. This book will be of interest to students and scholars of computer-mediated communication (CMC), computer-assisted language learning (CALL), technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), language acquisition and language education more broadly. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The TKT Course CLIL Module Kay Bentley, University of Cambridge. ESOL Examinations, 2010-07-22 This is 'the' teacher training course for teachers and trainee teachers preparing for the Cambridge ESOL Teaching Knowledge Test - CLIL module. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language Proficiency in Native and Non-native Speakers Jan H. Hulstijn, 2015-02-15 This book, written for both seasoned and novice researchers, presents a theory of what is called Basic and Higher Language Cognition (BLC and HLC), a theory aimed at making some fundamental issues concerning first and second language learning and bilingualism (more) empirical. The first part of the book provides background for and explication of the theory as well as an agenda for future research, while the second part reports on selected studies of language proficiency in native speakers, as well as non-native speakers, and studies of the relationship between literacy in a first and second language. Conceptual and methodological problems in measuring language proficiency in research on second language acquisition and bilingualism are also discussed. Further, the notion of levels of language proficiency, as rendered by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), is critically examined, suggesting ways of empirically investigating a number of questions that the CEFR raises but is not capable of answering. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The Construct of Language Proficiency Ludo Verhoeven, John H. A. L. de Jong, 1992-01-01 This books aims to open up new perspectives in the study of language proficiency by bringing together current research from different fields in psychology and linguistics. All contributions start out from empirical studies, which are then related to applications in language assessment. The book also serves as a survey of recent developments in psycholinguistic research in the Netherlands. The book starts out with a thorough introduction of international literature on models of language proficiency, language development and its assessment. Section 1 deals with first language proficiency and addresses such problems as grammar in early child language, grammatical proficiency and its (in)variance across a range of ages, reading abilities, and writing skills. Section 2 focuses on multilingual proficiency and deals with test bias in relation to the background of the second language learner, bilingual proficiency in ethnic minority children, the development of the second language learner lexicon, communicative competence of school-age children in the context of second language learning, the assessment of foreign language attrition and the dimensionality in oral foreign language proficiency. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Colin Baker, 2006-01-01 Written as an introductory text from a crossdisciplinary perspective, this book covers individual and societal concepts in minority and majority languages. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students Robert L. Rhodes, Salvador Hector Ochoa, Samuel O. Ortiz, 2005-04-04 This is the first book to present a practical, problem-solving approach and hands-on tools and techniques for assessing English-language learners and culturally diverse students in K-12 settings. It meets a crucial need among practitioners and special educators working in today's schools. Provided are research-based, step-by-step procedures for conducting effective interviews with students, parents, and teachers; making the best use of interpreters; addressing special issues in the prereferral process; and conducting accurate, unbiased assessments of academic achievement, intellectual functioning, language proficiency, and acculturation. Among the book's special features are reproducible worksheets, questionnaires, and checklists--including several in both English and Spanish--in a ready-to-use, large-size format. This book is in The Guilford Practical Intervention in the Schools Series. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Bilingualism Across the Lifespan Elena Nicoladis, Simona Montanari, 2016-06-20 This book pioneers the study of bilingualism across the lifespan and in all its diverse forms. In framing the newest research within a lifespan perspective, the editors highlight the importance of considering an individual's age in researching how bilingualism affects language acquisition and cognitive development. A key theme is the variability among bilinguals, which may be due to a host of individual and sociocultural factors, including the degree to which bilingualism is valued within a particular context.Thus, this book is a call for language researchers, psychologists, and educators to pursue a better understanding of bilingualism in our increasingly global society. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency Norman Segalowitz, 2010-08-09 Winner of the 2011 Kenneth W. Mildenberger Prize Exploring fluency from multiple vantage points that together constitute a cognitive science perspective, this book examines research in second language acquisition and bilingualism that points to promising avenues for understanding and promoting second language fluency. Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency covers essential topics such as units of analysis for measuring fluency, the relation of second language fluency to general cognitive fluidity, social and motivational contributors to fluency, and neural correlates of fluency. The author provides clear and accessible summaries of foundational empirical work on speech production, automaticity, lexical access, and other issues of relevance to second language acquisition theory. Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency is a valuable reference for scholars in SLA, cognitive psychology, and language teaching, and it can also serve as an ideal textbook for advanced courses in these fields. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Brave New Schools Jim Cummins, Dennis Sayers, 1997-03-15 The first book in the cultural literacy debate that also considers the new classroom technology available to students, Brave New Schools is a vision of schooling for the twenty-first century. A response to the work of Hirsch and Bloom, as well as a guide for parents and teachers, Brave New Schools describes a world of students, teachers, and parents globally connected by the Internet, thereby able to communicate across geographical and cultural barriers once thought impassable. Brave New Schools also contains a valuable section on K-12 networking resources, lists of published materials available, and descriptions of successful networking activities. Stunning in its implications for the future of learning guided by technology, Brave New Schools offers hopeful solutions to the problems of cultural difference and the future of our children. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Woodcock-Johnson IV Nancy Mather, Lynne E. Jaffe, 2016-01-26 Includes online access to new, customizable WJ IV score tables, graphs, and forms for clinicians Woodcock-Johnson IV: Reports, Recommendations, and Strategies offers psychologists, clinicians, and educators an essential resource for preparing and writing psychological and educational reports after administering the Woodcock-Johnson IV. Written by Drs. Nancy Mather and Lynne E. Jaffe, this text enhances comprehension and use of this instrument and its many interpretive features. This book offers helpful information for understanding and using the WJ IV scores, provides tips to facilitate interpretation of test results, and includes sample diagnostic reports of students with various educational needs from kindergarten to the postsecondary level. The book also provides a wide variety of recommendations for cognitive abilities; oral language; and the achievement areas of reading, written language, and mathematics. It also provides guidelines for evaluators and recommendations focused on special populations, such as sensory impairments, autism, English Language Learners, and gifted and twice exceptional students, as well as recommendations for the use of assistive technology. The final section provides descriptions of the academic and behavioral strategies mentioned in the reports and recommendations. The unique access code included with each book allows access to downloadable, easy-to-customize score tables, graphs, and forms. This essential guide Facilitates the use and interpretation of the WJ IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Tests of Oral Language, and Tests of Achievement Explains scores and various interpretive features Offers a variety of types of diagnostic reports Provides a wide variety of educational recommendations and evidence-based strategies |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The CALLA Handbook Anna Uhl Chamot, J. Michael O'Malley, 1994 Includes units on science, mathematics, social studies, and literature and composition. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy David R. Olson, Nancy Torrance, 2009-02-16 This volume demonstrates how literacy is more than learning to read and write. Literacy creates communities, organizes personal and social lives, makes possible civil society and the rule of law, and underwrites the commitment of both modern and developing societies to universal education and ever higher levels of literate competence. Everything that is involved in being and becoming literate is the concern of this interdisciplinary group of distinguished scholars. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Language Proficiency and Academic Achievement Charlene Rivera, 1984 This book developed from a dialogue between Jim Cummins and other scholars and practitioners. It represents a state of the art discussion of Cummins' theoretical framework. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Testing Academic Language Proficiency Marco Mezzadri, 2018-01-23 This book focuses on the development of the process of teaching and assessing foreign language competence for study purposes in a pluricultural and plurilingual context. It addresses not only the individual who is learning the language for academic purposes (LAP), but also other stakeholders, like teachers, schools and universities, and external boards, such as examination boards for language testing. The book highlights an ongoing research project at the University of Parma, Italy, aimed at developing teaching programs and evaluative tools for language for academic purposes. Starting from a reflection upon the nature of language for study purposes stemming from the tradition of English for Academic Purposes, it describes the model of an LAP test implemented in Italian secondary schools and universities, and shows the findings concerning the performance in the test of both students whose mother tongue is Indo-European and those who speak non-Indo-European languages. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Bilingual Language Proficiency Joana Duarte, 2011 |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Practice in a Second Language Robert DeKeyser, 2007-03-12 This volume focuses on 'practice' from a theoretical perspective and includes implications for the classroom. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Teaching Bilingual and EAL Learners in Primary Schools Jean Conteh, 2012-07-31 Shortlisted for the UKLA Academic Book Award 2013! As the number of children learning EAL in primary schools increase, trainee teachers need to develop the professional skills and expertise to teach them. This text reconsiders which children should come under the umbrella of EAL and provides practical strategies for teaching them in an inclusive classroom. It asks ′what do we mean by EAL?′ and covers essential theories of learning and approaches to teaching. Chapter topics include; speaking and listening; and reading and writing, and activities and case studies to link theory to practice are provided throughout. About the Transforming Primary QTS Series This series reflects the new, creative way schools are begining to teach, taking a fresh approach to supporting trainees as they work towards primary QTS. Titles provide fully up to date resources focused on teaching a more integrated and inclusive curriculum, and texts draw out meaningful and explicit cross curricular links. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Academic Language in Diverse Classrooms: Definitions and Contexts Margo Gottlieb, Gisela Ernst-Slavit, 2014-04-22 With the rigorous content of College and Career Readiness standards, academic language use has moved to the forefront of educational priorities. School leaders and teachers must ensure that academic language becomes the focus of new curricula, instruction, and assessment, with special attention to linguistically and culturally diverse students. Margo Gottlieb and Gisela Ernst-Slavit's six-book series on academic language is already the definitive resource on the topic. This companion volume provides a concise, thorough overview of the key research concepts and effective practices that underlie the series. It includes, Definitions and examples of the dimensions of academic language, A step-by-step template to incorporate academic language use into plans for student learning, Graphic models that illustrate the construct of academic language and its classroom application, Language is the most fundamental building block of education. Be sure your school is as strong as it can be with this indispensable book. |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Bilingualism in Education Jim Cummins, Merrill Swain, 2014-10-13 This is a remarkably interesting and useful book...it makes a significant contribution to our knowledge and understanding of both bilingualism and education.' Journal of Education Policy |
| cognitive academic language proficiency: Communicative Competence Approaches to Language Proficiency Assessment Charlene Rivera, 1984 |
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