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| critical period definition psychology: Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology Jeffrey Kreutzer, Bruce Caplan, John DeLuca, 2010-09-29 Clinical neuropsychology is a rapidly evolving specialty whose practitioners serve patients with traumatic brain injury, stroke and other vascular impairments, brain tumors, epilepsy and nonepileptic seizure disorders, developmental disabilities, progressive neurological disorders, HIV- and AIDS-related disorders, and dementia. . Services include evaluation, treatment, and case consultation in child, adult, and the expanding geriatric population in medical and community settings. The clinical goal always is to restore and maximize cognitive and psychological functioning in an injured or compromised brain. Most neuropsychology reference books focus primarily on assessment and diagnosis, and to date none has been encyclopedic in format. Clinicians, patients, and family members recognize that evaluation and diagnosis is only a starting point for the treatment and recovery process. During the past decade there has been a proliferation of programs, both hospital- and clinic-based, that provide rehabilitation, treatment, and treatment planning services. This encyclopedia will serve as a unified, comprehensive reference for professionals involved in the diagnosis, evaluation, and rehabilitation of adult patients and children with neuropsychological disorders. |
| critical period definition psychology: Encyclopedia of Human Development Neil J. Salkind, 2005-10-14 The field of human development focuses on the growth and development of the human being including physical, social, psychological, and emotional development. Under the broad umbrella of the term human development you find countless topics that range from charting the emotional attachment of an infant to his or her parents and its long-term effects on well-being, media violence and adolescents′ behavior, or factors moderating the natural decline in physical and mental abilities associated with aging. The Encyclopedia of Human Development is the first comprehensive, authoritative, and informative reference work that presents state-of-the-art research and ready-to-use facts from the fields of psychology, individual and family studies, and education in a way that is not too technical. With more than 600 entries, this three-volume Encyclopedia covers topics as diverse as adolescence, cognitive development, education, family, gender differences, identity, longitudinal research, personality development, prenatal development, temperament, and more. Key Features Provides cross-disciplinary coverage, with contributions from experts in the fields of psychology, education, human development and family studies, and gerontology Highlights classic studies and theories and provides brief biographies of notable researchers and theorists Takes a lifespan approach by including several anchor essays that cover specific phases of development such as prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, early and middle adulthood, later adulthood and aging Begins with an Introduction that details the scope, rationale, and audience for the work The cross-disciplinary field of human development is one that captures interest among and holds practical relevance for the general public as well as academia, therefore this engaging Encyclopedia will be a welcome addition to any academic or public library. |
| critical period definition psychology: The Promise of Adolescence National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on the Neurobiological and Socio-behavioral Science of Adolescent Development and Its Applications, 2019-07-26 Adolescenceâ€beginning with the onset of puberty and ending in the mid-20sâ€is a critical period of development during which key areas of the brain mature and develop. These changes in brain structure, function, and connectivity mark adolescence as a period of opportunity to discover new vistas, to form relationships with peers and adults, and to explore one's developing identity. It is also a period of resilience that can ameliorate childhood setbacks and set the stage for a thriving trajectory over the life course. Because adolescents comprise nearly one-fourth of the entire U.S. population, the nation needs policies and practices that will better leverage these developmental opportunities to harness the promise of adolescenceâ€rather than focusing myopically on containing its risks. This report examines the neurobiological and socio-behavioral science of adolescent development and outlines how this knowledge can be applied, both to promote adolescent well-being, resilience, and development, and to rectify structural barriers and inequalities in opportunity, enabling all adolescents to flourish. |
| critical period definition psychology: From Neurons to Neighborhoods National Research Council, Institute of Medicine, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development, 2000-11-13 How we raise young children is one of today's most highly personalized and sharply politicized issues, in part because each of us can claim some level of expertise. The debate has intensified as discoveries about our development-in the womb and in the first months and years-have reached the popular media. How can we use our burgeoning knowledge to assure the well-being of all young children, for their own sake as well as for the sake of our nation? Drawing from new findings, this book presents important conclusions about nature-versus-nurture, the impact of being born into a working family, the effect of politics on programs for children, the costs and benefits of intervention, and other issues. The committee issues a series of challenges to decision makers regarding the quality of child care, issues of racial and ethnic diversity, the integration of children's cognitive and emotional development, and more. Authoritative yet accessible, From Neurons to Neighborhoods presents the evidence about brain wiring and how kids learn to speak, think, and regulate their behavior. It examines the effect of the climate-family, child care, community-within which the child grows. |
| critical period definition psychology: Development During Middle Childhood Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Committee on Child Development Research and Public Policy, Panel to Review the Status of Basic Research on School-Age Children, 1984-01-01 For the first time, a report focuses specifically on middle childhoodâ€a discrete, pivotal period of development. In this review of research, experts examine the physical health and cognitive development of 6- to 12-year-old children as well as their surroundings: school and home environment, ecocultural setting, and family and peer relationships. |
| critical period definition psychology: Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8 National Research Council, Institute of Medicine, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on the Science of Children Birth to Age 8: Deepening and Broadening the Foundation for Success, 2015-07-23 Children are already learning at birth, and they develop and learn at a rapid pace in their early years. This provides a critical foundation for lifelong progress, and the adults who provide for the care and the education of young children bear a great responsibility for their health, development, and learning. Despite the fact that they share the same objective - to nurture young children and secure their future success - the various practitioners who contribute to the care and the education of children from birth through age 8 are not acknowledged as a workforce unified by the common knowledge and competencies needed to do their jobs well. Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8 explores the science of child development, particularly looking at implications for the professionals who work with children. This report examines the current capacities and practices of the workforce, the settings in which they work, the policies and infrastructure that set qualifications and provide professional learning, and the government agencies and other funders who support and oversee these systems. This book then makes recommendations to improve the quality of professional practice and the practice environment for care and education professionals. These detailed recommendations create a blueprint for action that builds on a unifying foundation of child development and early learning, shared knowledge and competencies for care and education professionals, and principles for effective professional learning. Young children thrive and learn best when they have secure, positive relationships with adults who are knowledgeable about how to support their development and learning and are responsive to their individual progress. Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8 offers guidance on system changes to improve the quality of professional practice, specific actions to improve professional learning systems and workforce development, and research to continue to build the knowledge base in ways that will directly advance and inform future actions. The recommendations of this book provide an opportunity to improve the quality of the care and the education that children receive, and ultimately improve outcomes for children. |
| critical period definition psychology: Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis David Birdsong, 1999 Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis is the only book on the market to provide a diverse collection of perspectives, from experienced researchers, on the role of the Critical Period Hypothesis in second language acquisition. It is widely believed that age effects in both first and second language acquisition are developmental in nature, with native levels of attainment in both to be though possible only if learning began before the closure of a window of opportunity – a critical or sensitive period. These seven chapters explore this idea at length, with each contribution acting as an authoritative look at various domains of inquiry in second language acquisition, including syntax, morphology, phonetics/phonology, Universal Grammar, and neurofunctional factors. By presenting readers with an evenly-balanced take on the topic with viewpoints both for and against the Critical Period Hypothesis, this book is the ideal guide to understanding this critical body of research in SLA, for students and researchers in Applied Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. |
| critical period definition psychology: Neurocognitive Development: Normative Development , 2019-09-22 This is one of a two-volume work on neurocognitive development, focusing separately on normative and non-normative development. The normative volume focuses on neurology, biology, genetics, and psychology of normative cognitive development. It covers the development of intellectual abilities, visual perception, motor function, language, memory, attention, executive function, social cognition, learning abilities, and affect and behavior. The book identifies when and how these functions develop, the genetics and neurophysiology of their operation, and their evaluation and assessment in clinical practice. This book will serve as a comprehensive reference to researchers in cognitive development in neuroscience, psychology, and medicine, as well as to clinicians and allied health professionals focused on developmental disabilities (child neurologists, pediatric neuropsychologists, child psychiatrists, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists.) - Summarizes research on normative neurocognitive development - Includes intellectual abilities, language, memory, attention, motor function, and more - Discusses genetics and environmental influences on development - Provides interdisciplinary information of use to both researchers and clinicians |
| critical period definition psychology: The Interpersonal World of the Infant Daniel N. Stern, 2018-04-19 This book attempts to create a dialogue between the infant as revealed by the experimental approach and as clinically reconstructed, in the service of resolving the contradiction between theory and reality. It describes the several ways that organization can form in the infant's mind. |
| critical period definition psychology: Pediatric Neurology Part I Giovanni Cioni, Giuseppina Sgandurra, 2013-04-24 “Psychomotor” development refers to changes in a child's cognitive, emotional, motor, and social capacities from the beginning of life throughout fetal and neonatal periods, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. It occurs in a variety of domains and a wide range of theories makes understanding children's development a challenging undertaking. Different models have tried to interpret the origins of human behavior, the pattern of developmental changes over time, and the individual and contextual factors that could direct child development. No single theory has been able to account for all aspects of child development, but each of them may contribute an important piece to the child development puzzle. Although theories sometimes disagree, much of their information is complementary rather than contradictory. The knowledge of child typical development and related theories and models is greatly useful for clinical practice, leading to recognition of developmental disorders and the ways in which they can be approached and treated. In this chapter, traditional and more modern concepts around functional development of psychomotor abilities are reported, firstly more in general and then specifically in the motor domain. |
| critical period definition psychology: The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 2 Philip David Zelazo, 2013-03-14 This handbook provides a comprehensive survey of what is now known about psychological development, from birth to biological maturity, and it highlights how cultural, social, cognitive, neural, and molecular processes work together to yield human behavior and changes in human behavior. |
| critical period definition psychology: Sensitive Periods in Development M. H. Bornstein, 2014-02-24 First published in 1987. Contemporary psychology is increasingly diversified, pluralistic, and specialized, and most psychologists venture beyond the confines of their substantive specialty only rarely. Yet psychologists with different specialties encounter similar problems, ask similar questions, and share similar concerns. Unfortunately, there are very few arenas available for the expression or exploration of what is common across psychological subdisciplines. The Crosscurrents in Contemporary Psychology series is intended to serve as such a forum. The chief aim of this series is to provide integrated perspectives on supradisciplinary themes in psychology. Despite its contemporary diversity and high degree of specialization, psychology embraces many phenomena that are of interest across subdisciplines largely because of the generality and ubiquity of those phenomena. The sensitive period is one. Sensitivity to different kinds of experience varies over the life cycle of an organism. |
| critical period definition psychology: The Cambridge Handbook of Biolinguistics Cedric Boeckx, Kleanthes K. Grohmann, 2018-03-15 Biolinguistics involves the study of language from a broad perspective that embraces natural sciences, helping us better to understand the fundamentals of the faculty of language. This Handbook offers the most comprehensive state-of-the-field survey of the subject available. A team of prominent scholars working in a variety of disciplines is brought together to examine language development, language evolution and neuroscience, as well as providing overviews of the conceptual landscape of the field. The Handbook includes work at the forefront of contemporary research devoted to the evidence for a language instinct, the critical period hypothesis, grammatical maturation, bilingualism, the relation between mind and brain and the role of natural selection in language evolution. It will be welcomed by graduate students and researchers in a wide range of disciplines, including linguistics, evolutionary biology and cognitive science. |
| critical period definition psychology: Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, 2013 Helps students understand how culture impacts development in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Grounded in a global cultural perspective (within and outside of the US), this text enriches the discussion with historical context and an interdisciplinary approach, including studies from fields such as anthropology and sociology, in addition to the compelling psychological research on adolescent development. This book also takes into account the period of emerging adulthood (ages 18-25), a term coined by the author, and an area of study for which Arnett is a leading expert. Arnett continues the fifth edition with new and updated studies, both U.S. and international. With Pearson's MyDevelopmentLab Video Series and Powerpoints embedded with video, students can experience a true cross-cultural experience. A better teaching and learning experience This program will provide a better teaching and learning experience-- for you and your students. Here's how: Personalize Learning - The new MyDevelopmentLab delivers proven results in helping students succeed, provides engaging experiences that personalize learning, and comes from a trusted partner with educational expertise and a deep commitment to helping students and instructors achieve their goals. Improve Critical Thinking - Students learn to think critically about the influence of culture on development with pedagogical features such as Culture Focus boxes and Historical Focus boxes. Engage Students - Arnett engages students with cross cultural research and examples throughout. MyVirtualTeen, an interactive simulation, allows students to apply the concepts they are learning to their own virtual teen. Explore Research - Research Focus provides students with a firm grasp of various research methods and helps them see the impact that methods can have on research findings. Support Instructors - This program provides instructors with unbeatable resources, including video embedded PowerPoints and the new MyDevelopmentLab that includes cross-cultural videos and MyVirtualTeen, an interactive simulation that allows you to raise a child from birth to age 18. An easy to use Instructor's Manual, a robust test bank, and an online test generator (MyTest) are also available. All of these materials may be packaged with the text upon request. Note: MyDevelopmentLab does not come automatically packaged with this text. To purchase MyDevelopmentLab, please visit: www.mydevelopmentlab.com or you can purchase a ValuePack of the text + MyDevelopmentlab (at no additional cost): ValuePack ISBN-10: 0205911854/ ValuePack ISBN-13: 9780205911851. Click here for a short walkthrough video on MyVirtualTeen! http://www.youtube.com/playlist'list=PL51B144F17A36FF25&feature=plcp |
| critical period definition psychology: Disease Control Priorities, Third Edition (Volume 8) Donald A. P. Bundy, Nilanthi de Silva, Susan Horton, Dean T. Jamison, 2017-11-20 More children born today will survive to adulthood than at any time in history. It is now time to emphasize health and development in middle childhood and adolescence--developmental phases that are critical to health in adulthood and the next generation. Child and Adolescent Health and Development explores the benefits that accrue from sustained and targeted interventions across the first two decades of life. The volume outlines the investment case for effective, costed, and scalable interventions for low-resource settings, emphasizing the cross-sectoral role of education. This evidence base can guide policy makers in prioritizing actions to promote survival, health, cognition, and physical growth throughout childhood and adolescence. |
| critical period definition psychology: Investing in the Health and Well-Being of Young Adults National Research Council, Institute of Medicine, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Improving the Health, Safety, and Well-Being of Young Adults, 2015-01-27 Young adulthood - ages approximately 18 to 26 - is a critical period of development with long-lasting implications for a person's economic security, health and well-being. Young adults are key contributors to the nation's workforce and military services and, since many are parents, to the healthy development of the next generation. Although 'millennials' have received attention in the popular media in recent years, young adults are too rarely treated as a distinct population in policy, programs, and research. Instead, they are often grouped with adolescents or, more often, with all adults. Currently, the nation is experiencing economic restructuring, widening inequality, a rapidly rising ratio of older adults, and an increasingly diverse population. The possible transformative effects of these features make focus on young adults especially important. A systematic approach to understanding and responding to the unique circumstances and needs of today's young adults can help to pave the way to a more productive and equitable tomorrow for young adults in particular and our society at large. Investing in The Health and Well-Being of Young Adults describes what is meant by the term young adulthood, who young adults are, what they are doing, and what they need. This study recommends actions that nonprofit programs and federal, state, and local agencies can take to help young adults make a successful transition from adolescence to adulthood. According to this report, young adults should be considered as a separate group from adolescents and older adults. Investing in The Health and Well-Being of Young Adults makes the case that increased efforts to improve high school and college graduate rates and education and workforce development systems that are more closely tied to high-demand economic sectors will help this age group achieve greater opportunity and success. The report also discusses the health status of young adults and makes recommendations to develop evidence-based practices for young adults for medical and behavioral health, including preventions. What happens during the young adult years has profound implications for the rest of the life course, and the stability and progress of society at large depends on how any cohort of young adults fares as a whole. Investing in The Health and Well-Being of Young Adults will provide a roadmap to improving outcomes for this age group as they transition from adolescence to adulthood. |
| critical period definition psychology: Parenting Matters National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Supporting the Parents of Young Children, 2016-11-21 Decades of research have demonstrated that the parent-child dyad and the environment of the familyâ€which includes all primary caregiversâ€are at the foundation of children's well- being and healthy development. From birth, children are learning and rely on parents and the other caregivers in their lives to protect and care for them. The impact of parents may never be greater than during the earliest years of life, when a child's brain is rapidly developing and when nearly all of her or his experiences are created and shaped by parents and the family environment. Parents help children build and refine their knowledge and skills, charting a trajectory for their health and well-being during childhood and beyond. The experience of parenting also impacts parents themselves. For instance, parenting can enrich and give focus to parents' lives; generate stress or calm; and create any number of emotions, including feelings of happiness, sadness, fulfillment, and anger. Parenting of young children today takes place in the context of significant ongoing developments. These include: a rapidly growing body of science on early childhood, increases in funding for programs and services for families, changing demographics of the U.S. population, and greater diversity of family structure. Additionally, parenting is increasingly being shaped by technology and increased access to information about parenting. Parenting Matters identifies parenting knowledge, attitudes, and practices associated with positive developmental outcomes in children ages 0-8; universal/preventive and targeted strategies used in a variety of settings that have been effective with parents of young children and that support the identified knowledge, attitudes, and practices; and barriers to and facilitators for parents' use of practices that lead to healthy child outcomes as well as their participation in effective programs and services. This report makes recommendations directed at an array of stakeholders, for promoting the wide-scale adoption of effective programs and services for parents and on areas that warrant further research to inform policy and practice. It is meant to serve as a roadmap for the future of parenting policy, research, and practice in the United States. |
| critical period definition psychology: Vibrant and Healthy Kids National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice, Committee on Applying Neurobiological and Socio-Behavioral Sciences from Prenatal Through Early Childhood Development: A Health Equity Approach, 2019-12-27 Children are the foundation of the United States, and supporting them is a key component of building a successful future. However, millions of children face health inequities that compromise their development, well-being, and long-term outcomes, despite substantial scientific evidence about how those adversities contribute to poor health. Advancements in neurobiological and socio-behavioral science show that critical biological systems develop in the prenatal through early childhood periods, and neurobiological development is extremely responsive to environmental influences during these stages. Consequently, social, economic, cultural, and environmental factors significantly affect a child's health ecosystem and ability to thrive throughout adulthood. Vibrant and Healthy Kids: Aligning Science, Practice, and Policy to Advance Health Equity builds upon and updates research from Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity (2017) and From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (2000). This report provides a brief overview of stressors that affect childhood development and health, a framework for applying current brain and development science to the real world, a roadmap for implementing tailored interventions, and recommendations about improving systems to better align with our understanding of the significant impact of health equity. |
| critical period definition psychology: Behavioral Toxicology Bernard Weiss, 2013-03-09 Behavioral toxicology is a young discipline in the United States; so young, in fact, that this is one of its first books. Behavioral questions are bound to play a major role in future scientific work and governmental decisions involving the health effects of environmental contaminants and other chemicals. This role springs from two key problems that face scientists and public agencies required to set acceptable exposure standards or to determine criteria for the toxicity of therapeutic chemicals: How do you evaluate effects that may show up only as subtle functional disturbances? And how do you de tect toxic effects early enough so that they may still be reversible, before they produce major damage? The contributions in this book come from a collection of scientists whose interests span a wide variety of problem areas. The focus is largely on me thodological issues because they represent the most immediate concern of the discipline. We expect that this collection of papers will represent a useful source book for behavioral toxicology for some time. For the past few years, the University of Rochester's Department of Radiation Biology and Biophysics has sponsored a series of international conferences on chemical toxicity, partly as a response to concern over the con sequences to health of the rich chemical soup in which we live. This book is based upon presentations made to the fifth of the series. Held in June, 1972, it was the first formal meeting devoted to behavioral toxicology in this country. |
| critical period definition psychology: Language Acquisition David Michael Singleton, Lisa Ryan, 2004-01-01 The authors examine the evidence relative to the idea that there is an age factor in first & second language acquisition & goes on to explore the various explanations that have been advanced to account for such evidence. Finally, it looks at educational ramifications of the age question. |
| critical period definition psychology: Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development: R-Z; Index Janette B. Benson, 2008 This reference work provides a comprehensive entry point to the existing literature on child development from the fields of psychology, genetics, neuroscience, and sociology. Although some medical information is included, the emphasis is on normal growth and is primarily from a psychological perspective. |
| critical period definition psychology: Handbook of Life Course Health Development Neal Halfon, Christopher B. Forrest, Richard M. Lerner, Elaine M. Faustman, 2017-11-20 This book is open access under a CC BY 4.0 license. This handbook synthesizes and analyzes the growing knowledge base on life course health development (LCHD) from the prenatal period through emerging adulthood, with implications for clinical practice and public health. It presents LCHD as an innovative field with a sound theoretical framework for understanding wellness and disease from a lifespan perspective, replacing previous medical, biopsychosocial, and early genomic models of health. Interdisciplinary chapters discuss major health concerns (diabetes, obesity), important less-studied conditions (hearing, kidney health), and large-scale issues (nutrition, adversity) from a lifespan viewpoint. In addition, chapters address methodological approaches and challenges by analyzing existing measures, studies, and surveys. The book concludes with the editors’ research agenda that proposes priorities for future LCHD research and its application to health care practice and health policy. Topics featured in the Handbook include: The prenatal period and its effect on child obesity and metabolic outcomes. Pregnancy complications and their effect on women’s cardiovascular health. A multi-level approach for obesity prevention in children. Application of the LCHD framework to autism spectrum disorder. Socioeconomic disadvantage and its influence on health development across the lifespan. The importance of nutrition to optimal health development across the lifespan. The Handbook of Life Course Health Development is a must-have resource for researchers, clinicians/professionals, and graduate students in developmental psychology/science; maternal and child health; social work; health economics; educational policy and politics; and medical law as well as many interrelated subdisciplines in psychology, medicine, public health, mental health, education, social welfare, economics, sociology, and law. |
| critical period definition psychology: Flow Mihaly Csikszent, 1991-03-13 An introduction to flow, a new field of behavioral science that offers life-fulfilling potential, explains its principles and shows how to introduce flow into all aspects of life, avoiding the interferences of disharmony. |
| critical period definition psychology: Speech and Brain Mechanisms Wilder Penfield, Lamar Roberts, 2014-07-14 The outcome of ten years' work, this book is a carefully planned study of brain dominance, aphasia, and other speech disturbances, and includes a discussion of the cerebral mechanisms of speech and the learning and teaching of language. Originally published in 1959. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905. |
| critical period definition psychology: Developmental Psychobiology George F. Michel, Celia L. Moore, 1995 This text is the first to provide a coherent theoretical treatment of the flourishing new field of developmental psychobiology which has arisen in recent years on the crest of exciting advances in evolutionary biology, developmental neuroscience, and dynamic systems theory. Michel and Moore, two of the field's key pioneers and researchers, integrate primary source information from research in both biological and psychological disciplines in a clear account of the frontier of biopsychological investigation and theorizing. Explicitly conceptual and historical, the first three chapters set the stage for a clear understanding of the field and its research, with particular attention to the nature-nurture question. The next three chapters each provide information about a basic subfield in biology (genetics, evolution, embryology) that is particularly relevant for developmental studies of behavior. These are followed by extended treatments of three spheres of inquiry (behavioral embryology, cognitive neuroscience, animal behavior) in terms of how a successful interdisciplinary approach to behavioral development might look. A final chapter comments on some of the unique aspects of development study. From this detailed and clearly organized text, students will achieve a firm grasp of some of science's most fertile questions about the relation between evolution and development, the relation between brain and cognitive development, the value of a natural history approach to animal behavior--and what it teaches us about humans--and much more. Each chapter contains material that questions the conventional wisdom held in many subdisciplines of biology and psychology. Throughout, the text challenges students to think creatively as it thoroughly grounds them in the field's approach to such topics as behavioral-genetic analysis, the concept of innateness, molecular genetics and development, neuroembryology, behavioral embryology, maturation, cognition, and ethology. A Bradford Book |
| critical period definition psychology: Alcohol and the Nervous System Edith V. Sullivan, Adolf Pfefferbaum, 2014-10-08 Alcohol is the most widely used drug in the world, yet alcoholism remains a serious addiction affecting nearly 20 million Americans. Our current understanding of alcohol's effect on brain structure and related functional damage is being revolutionized by genetic research, basic neuroscience, brain imaging science, and systematic study of cognitive, sensory, and motor abilities. Volume 125 of the Handbook of Clinical Neurology is a comprehensive, in-depth treatise of studies on alcohol and the brain covering the basic understanding of alcohol's effect on the central nervous system, the diagnosis and treatment of alcoholism, and prospect for recovery. The chapters within will be of interest to clinical neurologists, neuropsychologists, and researchers in all facets and levels of the neuroscience of alcohol and alcoholism. - The first focused reference specifically on alcohol and the brain - Details our current understanding of how alcohol impacts the central nervous system - Covers clinical and social impact of alcohol abuse disorders and the biomedical consequences of alcohol abuse - Includes section on neuroimaging of neurochemical markers and brain function |
| critical period definition psychology: Comprehensive Neonatal Nursing Care Carole Kenner, PhD, RN, FAAN, FNAP, ANEF, Judy Wright Lott, DSN, RN, BC-NNP, FAAN, 2013-08-21 This book provides a complete look at neonatal healthcare delivery. This edition includes discussions of contemporary topics of interest, such as informatics, genetics, global health, and family-centered care, which are vital to providers caring for neonates today. The case studies and the evidence-based practice dialogues at the end of each chapter provide great opportunities for further reflection. The book is useful to a wide audience in nursing, including undergraduate and graduate nursing students, practicing neonatal and pediatric nurses, and advanced practice nurses who care for neonates. Score: 92, 4 Stars.--Doody's Medical Reviews This 'classic' has been thoroughly updated to incorporate the most up-to-date research findings and strategies for providing cost-effective and evidence-based care. New chapters address emerging infections, the late preterm infant, and neonatal care from a global perspective. Included are updated neonatal care protocols and procedures, neuroprotective risk factors, new treatments, and new trends in developmental care. Text integrates the Institute of Medicine's (10M) five competencies, reflects the Affordable Healthcare Act and the Robert Wood Johnson and 10M report The Future of Nursing. The text continues to provide neonatal care from a physiologic and pathophysiologic approach, with a major emphasis on nursing management at the bedside and advanced practice level. Each neonatal body system is presented, along with E-B interventions to assist in understanding the 'why' behind what is seen in the clinical area. Integrative management is threaded through the text along with extensive research findings to support practice strategies and rationales for sound clinical decision-making. Topics of recent interest include iatrogenic complications, neonatal pain, use of computers or other technology in neonatal care, and neonatal AIDS. Case studies enhance understanding of both common and rare neonatal conditions. New to the Fifth Edition: New chapters: emerging infections, the late preterm infant, and neonatal care from a global perspective Updated neonatal care protocols and procedures, neuroprotective factors, new treatment modalities and new trends in developmental care Tackles the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Addresses the expansion of the nurse's role in the US and worldwide Provides case studies that lead the reader through the identification, diagnosis, treatment, and evaluation of common and rare neonatal conditions |
| critical period definition psychology: The Neurobiology of Brain and Behavioral Development Robbin Gibb, Bryan Kolb, 2017-10-23 The Neurobiology of Brain and Behavioral Development provides an overview of the process of brain development, including recent discoveries on how the brain develops. This book collates and integrates these findings, weaving the latest information with core information on the neurobiology of brain development. It focuses on cortical development, but also features discussions on how the other parts of the brain wire into the developing cerebral cortex. A systems approach is used to describe the anatomical underpinnings of behavioral development, connecting anatomical and molecular features of brain development with behavioral development.The disruptors of typical brain development are discussed in appropriate sections, as is the science of epigenetics that presents a novel and instructive approach on how experiences, both individual and intergenerational, can alter features of brain development. What distinguishes this book from others in the field is its focus on both molecular mechanisms and behavioral outcomes. This body of knowledge contributes to our understanding of the fundamentals of brain plasticity and metaplasticity, both of which are also showcased in this book. - Provides an up-to-date overview of the process of brain development that is suitable for use as a university textbook at an early graduate or senior undergraduate level - Breadth from molecular level (Chapters 5-7) to the behavioral/cognitive level (Chapters 8-12), beginning with Chapters 1-4 providing a historical context of the ideas - Integrates the neurobiology of brain development and behavior, promoting the idea that animal models inform human development - Presents an emphasis on the role of epigenetics and brain plasticity in brain development and behavior |
| critical period definition psychology: Handbook of Human Stress and Immunity Ronald Glaser, Janice K. Kiecolt-Glaser, 2014-06-28 In 1964, George Solomon coined the term psychoneuroimmunology. In the intervening 30 years, this term has emerged into a dynamic field of study which investigates the unique interactions between the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. The Handbook of Human Stress and Immunity is a comprehensive reference for this dynamic new field. Focusing on how stressors impact the central nervous system and the resulting changes in immune responses, the Handbook is the first to describehow stress specifically affects human immune systems. It discusses how stress generally makes people more susceptible to infection, how personal support systems can counteract the physiological effects of stress, and how stress, or lack of stress, affects the aging process. Chapters are authored by the leading names in the field and cover such diseases as autoimmune disease, viral pathogenesis, herpes, HIV, and AIDS. |
| critical period definition psychology: Biological Foundations of Language Eric H. Lenneberg, 1967-01-15 The study of language is pertinent to many fields of inquiry. It is relevant to psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and medicine. It encroaches upon the humanities, as well as upon the social and natural sciences. We may pursue investigations that concentrate on what man has done with or to specific languages; or we may regard language as a natural phenomenon- an aspect of his biological nature, to be studied in the same manner as, for instance, his anatomy. Which of these approaches is to be chosen is entirely a matter of personal curiosity. This book is concerned with the biological aspects of language. -- Preface |
| critical period definition psychology: Introduction to Psychology Jennifer Walinga, Charles Stangor, This book is designed to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level. The focus on behaviour and empiricism has produced a text that is better organized, has fewer chapters, and is somewhat shorter than many of the leading books. The beginning of each section includes learning objectives; throughout the body of each section are key terms in bold followed by their definitions in italics; key takeaways, and exercises and critical thinking activities end each section. |
| critical period definition psychology: Cognitive-Behavior Modification Donald Meichenbaum, 2013-06-29 This book is an account of a personal journey through a research program. A number of people have helped guide my way. To them I am deeply grateful. Special thanks are offered to my students, whose constant stimulation and provocation were incentives to write this book. Moreover, in the belief that they would never show the initiative to put together a festschrift for me (Le., a book dedicated to someone for his contributions), I decided to do it myself. Several people cared enough to offer editorial criticisms, namely, Myles Genest, Barney Gilmore, Roy Cameron, Sherryl Goodman, and Dennis Turk. The reader benefits from their perspicacity. Finally, to my parents, who taught me to talk to myself, and to my family, without whose constant input this book would have been completed much sooner, but would have been much less fun, I dedicate this book. D.M. 5 Contents Prologue 11 Chapter 1 17 Self-Instructional Training Hyperactive, Impulsive Children: An Illustration of a Search for a Deficit 23 Luria's Model (24), Private Speech and Mediational Skills (27) Self-Instructional Treatment of Hyperactive, Impulsive Children: A Beginning 31 Empirical Studies of Self-Instructional Training 34 Combining Self-Instructions and Operant Procedures (44), Reasoning Rediscovered (47), Importance of Attributional Style (48), Taking Stock (54) Chapter 2 The Clinical Application of Self-Instructional Training to Other Clinical Populations: Three Illustrations 55 Social Isolates 56 Creative Problem-Solving 58 Adult Schizophrenics 68 What Shall We Say to Ourselves When We Obtain Negative Results? 77 7 8 Contents Chapter 3 |
| critical period definition psychology: Adult and Second Language Learning , 2020-05-21 The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Volume 72 in this preeminent series, features empirical and theoretical contributions in cognitive and experimental psychology, ranging from classical and instrumental conditioning, to complex learning and problem-solving. Chapters in this new release cover Statistical learning predicts literacy acquisition of a foreign alphabetic and logographic language, An Investigation into Virtual Immersion Mandarin Chinese Writing Instruction with Students with Autism, Child and adult classroom L2 learners: uniqueness and similarities, and implications for cognitive models, Current Trends in Second Sign Language Research: Acquisition, Teaching and Assessment, Language Experiences and Cognitive Control: A Dynamic Perspective, and much more. |
| critical period definition psychology: Childhood and Society Erik H. Erikson, 1993-09-17 The landmark work on the social significance of childhood. The original and vastly influential ideas of Erik H. Erikson underlie much of our understanding of human development. His insights into the interdependence of the individuals' growth and historical change, his now-famous concepts of identity, growth, and the life cycle, have changed the way we perceive ourselves and society. Widely read and cited, his works have won numerous awards including the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. Combining the insights of clinical psychoanalysis with a new approach to cultural anthropology, Childhood and Society deals with the relationships between childhood training and cultural accomplishment, analyzing the infantile and the mature, the modern and the archaic elements in human motivation. It was hailed upon its first publication as a rare and living combination of European and American thought in the human sciences (Margaret Mead, The American Scholar). Translated into numerous foreign languages, it has gone on to become a classic in the study of the social significance of childhood. |
| critical period definition psychology: Psychological Testing in the Service of Disability Determination Institute of Medicine, Board on the Health of Select Populations, Committee on Psychological Testing, Including Validity Testing, for Social Security Administration Disability Determinations, 2015-06-29 The United States Social Security Administration (SSA) administers two disability programs: Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI), for disabled individuals, and their dependent family members, who have worked and contributed to the Social Security trust funds, and Supplemental Security Income (SSSI), which is a means-tested program based on income and financial assets for adults aged 65 years or older and disabled adults and children. Both programs require that claimants have a disability and meet specific medical criteria in order to qualify for benefits. SSA establishes the presence of a medically-determined impairment in individuals with mental disorders other than intellectual disability through the use of standard diagnostic criteria, which include symptoms and signs. These impairments are established largely on reports of signs and symptoms of impairment and functional limitation. Psychological Testing in the Service of Disability Determination considers the use of psychological tests in evaluating disability claims submitted to the SSA. This report critically reviews selected psychological tests, including symptom validity tests, that could contribute to SSA disability determinations. The report discusses the possible uses of such tests and their contribution to disability determinations. Psychological Testing in the Service of Disability Determination discusses testing norms, qualifications for administration of tests, administration of tests, and reporting results. The recommendations of this report will help SSA improve the consistency and accuracy of disability determination in certain cases. |
| critical period definition psychology: Adler's Physiology of the Eye Leonard A Levin, Siv F. E. Nilsson, James Ver Hoeve, Samuel Wu, Paul L. Kaufman, Albert Alm, 2011-04-04 Drs. Paul L. Kaufman, Albert Alm, Leonard A Levin, Siv F. E. Nilsson, James Ver Hoeve, and Samuel Wu present the 11th Edition of the classic text Adler's Physiology of the Eye, updated to enhance your understanding of ocular function. This full-color, user-friendly edition captures the latest molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries and offers you unparalleled knowledge and insight into the physiology of the eye and its structures. A new organization by function, rather than anatomy, helps you make a stronger connection between physiological principles and clinical practice; and more than 1,000 great new full-color illustrations help clarify complex concepts. You can also access the complete contents online at www.expertconsult.com. Deepen your grasp of the physiological principles that underlie visual acuity, color vision, ocular circulation, the extraocular muscle, and much more. Improve your understanding of physiology by referring to this totally updated volume--organized by function, rather than anatomy--and make a stronger connection between physiological principles and clinical practice. Better visualize information with a new, revamped format that includes 1,000 illustrations presented in full-color to better clarify complex concepts and functions. Access the most recent molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries affecting eye function, and gain fresh perspectives from a new, international editorial team. Search the entire contents online and download all the illustrations at www.expertconsult.com. |
| critical period definition psychology: The Highly Sensitive Person Elaine N. Aron, 2013-12-01 The 25TH ANNIVERSARY EDITION of the original ground-breaking book on high sensitivity with over 500,000 copies sold. ARE YOU A HIGHLY SENSITIVE PERSON? Do you have a keen imagination and vivid dreams? Is time alone each day as essential to you as food and water? Are you noted for your empathy? Your conscientiousness? Do noise and confusion quickly overwhelm you? If your answers are yes, you may be a highly sensitive person (HSP) and Dr. Elaine Aron’s The Highly Sensitive Person is the life-changing guide you’ll want in your toolbox. Over twenty percent of people have this amazing, innate trait. Maybe you are one of them. A similar percentage is found in over 100 species, because high sensitivity is a survival strategy. It is also a way of life for HSPs. In this 25th anniversary edition of the groundbreaking classic, Dr. Elaine Aron, a research and clinical psychologist as well as an HSP herself, helps you grasp the reality of your wonderful trait, understand your past in the light of it, and make the most of it in your future. Drawing on her many years of study and face-to-face time spent with thousands of HSPs, she explains the changes you will need to make in order to lead a fuller, richer life. Along with a new Author’s Note, the latest scientific research, and a fresh discussion of anti-depressants, this edition of The Highly Sensitive Person is more essential than ever for creating the sense of self-worth and empowerment every HSP deserves and our planet needs. “Elaine Aron has not only validated and scientifically corroborated high sensitivity as a trait—she has given a level of empowerment and understanding to a large group of the planet’s population. I thank Dr. Aron every day for her having brought this awareness to the world.” —Alanis Morissette, artist, activist, teacher |
| critical period definition psychology: Early Nutrition and Long-Term Health Jose M Saavedra, Anne Dattilo, 2022-08-09 Early Nutrition and Long-Term Health: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Opportunities, Second Edition updates and expands upon the content in the first edition and adds focus on actionable and modifiable aspects of nutrition that have an impact on long-term health and disease. Part I examines the associations and the mechanisms of early life nutrition on growth as well as the development of cognitive, metabolic, immune, and dietary patterns and behaviors. Part II reviews the associations and impact of early life nutrition on non-communicable disease as well as their societal and economic impact. Part III focuses on the dietary and nutritional needs and approaches to optimizing the different stages of nutrition, from conception to the second year of life. Nutritionists, pediatricians, academics with research interest in this area, and food industry and healthcare professionals working in infant/child product and services, as well as students studying related disciplines, will benefit from this updated reference. Examines the relation between early life nutrition and long-term health Reviews the mechanistic aspects of the impact of diet, nutrition, from conception through the first years of life, on health in later life Details the associations and the impact of early life nutrition on growth and development, cognition, immunity, metabolism, and dietary habits and patterns Addresses the relationship of early life nutrition and with non-communicable diseases, including allergies, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic conditions, and obesity, as well as approaches to curtail them Explores the current societal and economic impact and the potential for interventions to improving nutrition and health |
| critical period definition psychology: Fostering Healthy Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Development in Children and Youth National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Fostering Healthy Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Development Among Children and Youth, 2020-01-18 Healthy mental, emotional, and behavioral (MEB) development is a critical foundation for a productive adulthood. Much is known about strategies to support families and communities in strengthening the MEB development of children and youth, by promoting healthy development and also by preventing and mitigating disorder, so that young people reach adulthood ready to thrive and contribute to society. Over the last decade, a growing body of research has significantly strengthened understanding of healthy MEB development and the factors that influence it, as well as how it can be fostered. Yet, the United States has not taken full advantage of this growing knowledge base. Ten years later, the nation still is not effectively mitigating risks for poor MEB health outcomes; these risks remain prevalent, and available data show no significant reductions in their prevalence. Fostering Healthy Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Development in Children and Youth: A National Agenda examines the gap between current research and achievable national goals for the next ten years. This report identifies the complexities of childhood influences and highlights the need for a tailored approach when implementing new policies and practices. This report provides a framework for a cohesive, multidisciplinary national approach to improving MEB health. |
| critical period definition psychology: Neurology of Vision and Visual Disorders , 2021-04-06 Neurology of Vision and Visual Disorders, Volume 178 in the Handbooks of Neurology series provides comprehensive summaries of recent research on the brain and nervous system. This volume reviews alterations in vision that stem from the retina to the cortex. Coverage includes content on vision and driving derived from the large amount of time devoted in clinics to determining who is safe to drive, along with research on the interplay between visual loss, attention and strategic compensations that may determine driving suitability. The title concludes with vision therapies and the evidence behind these approaches. Each chapter is co-written by a basic scientist collaborating with a clinician to provide a solid underpinning of the mechanisms behind the clinical syndromes. - Reviews the neurological underpinnings of visual perception disorders - Encompasses the cortex to the retina - Covers functional organization, electrophysiology and subcortical visual pathways - Discusses assessment, diagnosis and management of visual perception disorders - Includes international experts from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Singapore, and the UK and US |
The critical period - Cell Press
The critical period is characterized by changes not only at the level of synaptic transmission, but increasingly by structural changes, which result in closure of the critical period.
The Critical Period Concept: Research, Methodology, and …
Mar 20, 1981 · The Critical Period Concept: Definitions and Criteria A critical period is a time during the life span of an organism in which the organism may be affected by some …
Critical Periods in Brain Development and Behavior
Use early ethological studies (such as Lorenz’s studies of imprinting) to understand the general principles of behavioral critical periods and arrive at a definition of critical periods in the context …
Critical period: A history of the transition from questions of …
A brief history of some research on critical periods reveals that our questions have shifted from those of: is there a critical period and, if so, when does it occur; to questions of what …
Critical periods in development - “nature” vs. “nurture” - Part 2
How do we know it is a critical period? What starts the critical period? What closes it? What determines that it is closed? what are the changes that can be made during the critical period? …
Sample Chapter: Handbook of Preschool Mental Health: …
Historically, “critical periods” were defined as rigidly demarcated win-dows of time during which experience provides input that is essential for nor-mative development, and without this input …
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT - American Psychological …
Critical periods: In early development in particular, certain factors must be present at specific ages for growth to occur normally. Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the …
Critical Periods in Group Development - APA PsycNet
Critical periods in group development are foundationally important in conflict transformation and intergroup relations broadly, and deserve to receive more serious attention from research and …
Can the critical period be Department of Psychology, York …
l period is an issue that will depend on how liberally we understand the idea of a critical period. This keynote article makes an important point in showing how deafness and exposure to sign …
Critical Periods in Speech Perception: New Directions
III. BIOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF CRITICAL PERIODS haps the best-studied model of a CP is the enduring loss of r visual cortex (V1) to a “lazy” or otherwise deprived eye. The behavioral …
Editorial overview: Sensitive and critical periods
This picture includes the questions which sensitive and critical periods are biologically adaptive (i.e., have been favored by natural selection), and what their functions are (i.e., how variation …
UNIT 2 CRITICAL PERIODS AND PRINCIPLES OF …
explain the concept of critical period and its significance in context of development; describe the principles of development; and appreciate that each child is unique and that disability is only …
Critical period for first language: the crucial role of language …
In this review, we focus on a crucially different notion of critical period for language, with a crucially different time scale: that of a critical period for first language acquisition.
Critical Periods in Organizational Processes - Springer
Winick (1981) described four critical periods that determine overall size and proportions of the bod ies of mammals: the early prenatal period of mater nal adaptation to pregnancy, the perinatal …
Critical periods in development - “nature” vs. “nurture”
Critical period – A strict time window during which experience provides information that is essential for normal development and permanently alters performance. Sensitive period – A …
The Critical Period Hypothesis: Support, Challenge, and Reconc
Given the general failure experienced by adults when attempting to learn a second or foreign language, many have hypothesized that a critical period exists for the domain of language …
Evaluation of Critical Periods During the Development of the ...
In psychology these periods are known as critical periods. Those who assume responsibility for education and training need to consider these critical periods in the development of the …
Statistical learning and the critical period: how a continuous …
In this article, we will review evidence related to the critical period for language acquisition. Our argu-ment is that the supposition that older learners are learning language using a qualitatively …
Critical and Sensitive Periods in Development and Nutrition
A critical period (or its less restrictive form, a sensitive period) carries with it a number of methodological criteria that are typically not met in the literature on early nutrition.
jcn04133 1413..1426 - UW Faculty Web Server
When experience provides information that is essential for normal development and alters performance permanently, such sensitive periods are referred to as critical periods. Although …
The critical period - Cell Press
The critical period is characterized by changes not only at the level of synaptic transmission, but increasingly by structural changes, which result in closure of the critical period.
The Critical Period Concept: Research, Methodology, and …
Mar 20, 1981 · The Critical Period Concept: Definitions and Criteria A critical period is a time during the life span of an organism in which the organism may be affected by some …
Critical Periods in Brain Development and Behavior
Use early ethological studies (such as Lorenz’s studies of imprinting) to understand the general principles of behavioral critical periods and arrive at a definition of critical periods in the context …
Critical period: A history of the transition from questions of …
A brief history of some research on critical periods reveals that our questions have shifted from those of: is there a critical period and, if so, when does it occur; to questions of what …
Critical periods in development - “nature” vs. “nurture” - …
How do we know it is a critical period? What starts the critical period? What closes it? What determines that it is closed? what are the changes that can be made during the critical period? …
Sample Chapter: Handbook of Preschool Mental Health: …
Historically, “critical periods” were defined as rigidly demarcated win-dows of time during which experience provides input that is essential for nor-mative development, and without this input …
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT - American Psychological …
Critical periods: In early development in particular, certain factors must be present at specific ages for growth to occur normally. Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the …
Critical Periods in Group Development - APA PsycNet
Critical periods in group development are foundationally important in conflict transformation and intergroup relations broadly, and deserve to receive more serious attention from research and …
Can the critical period be Department of Psychology, York …
l period is an issue that will depend on how liberally we understand the idea of a critical period. This keynote article makes an important point in showing how deafness and exposure to sign …
Critical Periods in Speech Perception: New Directions
III. BIOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF CRITICAL PERIODS haps the best-studied model of a CP is the enduring loss of r visual cortex (V1) to a “lazy” or otherwise deprived eye. The behavioral …
Editorial overview: Sensitive and critical periods
This picture includes the questions which sensitive and critical periods are biologically adaptive (i.e., have been favored by natural selection), and what their functions are (i.e., how variation …
UNIT 2 CRITICAL PERIODS AND PRINCIPLES OF …
explain the concept of critical period and its significance in context of development; describe the principles of development; and appreciate that each child is unique and that disability is only …
Critical period for first language: the crucial role of language …
In this review, we focus on a crucially different notion of critical period for language, with a crucially different time scale: that of a critical period for first language acquisition.
Critical Periods in Organizational Processes - Springer
Winick (1981) described four critical periods that determine overall size and proportions of the bod ies of mammals: the early prenatal period of mater nal adaptation to pregnancy, the perinatal …
Critical periods in development - “nature” vs. “nurture”
Critical period – A strict time window during which experience provides information that is essential for normal development and permanently alters performance. Sensitive period – A …
The Critical Period Hypothesis: Support, Challenge, and Reconc
Given the general failure experienced by adults when attempting to learn a second or foreign language, many have hypothesized that a critical period exists for the domain of language …
Evaluation of Critical Periods During the Development of the ...
In psychology these periods are known as critical periods. Those who assume responsibility for education and training need to consider these critical periods in the development of the …
Statistical learning and the critical period: how a continuous …
In this article, we will review evidence related to the critical period for language acquisition. Our argu-ment is that the supposition that older learners are learning language using a qualitatively …
Critical and Sensitive Periods in Development and Nutrition
A critical period (or its less restrictive form, a sensitive period) carries with it a number of methodological criteria that are typically not met in the literature on early nutrition.
